MiniUnix/usr/doc/c/c1

Find at most related files.
including files from this version of Unix. 
.ta .5i 1i 1.5i 2i 2.5i 3i 3.5i 4i
.ul
1.  Introduction
.et
C is a computer language based on the earlier language B [1].
The languages and their compilers differ in two
major ways:
C introduces the notion of types, and defines
appropriate extra syntax and semantics;
also, C on the \s8PDP\s10-11 is a true compiler, producing
machine code where B produced interpretive code.
.pg
Most of the software for the \s8UNIX\s10 time-sharing system [2]
is written in C, as is the operating system itself.
C is also available on the \s8HIS\s10 6070 computer
at Murray Hill and
and on the \s8IBM\s10 System/370
at Holmdel [3].
This paper is a manual only for the C language itself
as implemented on the \s8PDP\s10-11.
However, hints are given occasionally in the text of
implementation-dependent features.
.pg
The \s8UNIX\s10 Programmer's Manual [4]
describes the library routines available to C programs under \s8UNIX\s10,
and also the procedures for compiling programs under that
system.
``The \s8GCOS\s10 C Library'' by Lesk and Barres [5]
describes routines available under that system
as well as compilation procedures.
Many of these routines, particularly the ones having to do with I/O,
are also provided under \s8UNIX\s10.
Finally, ``Programming in C\(mi A Tutorial,''
by B. W. Kernighan [6],
is as useful as promised by its title and the author's
previous introductions to allegedly impenetrable subjects.
.ul
2.  Lexical conventions
.et
There are six kinds of
tokens:
identifiers, keywords, constants, strings, expression operators,
and other separators.
In general blanks, tabs, newlines,
and comments as described below
are ignored except as they serve to separate
tokens.
At least one of these characters is required to separate
otherwise adjacent identifiers,
constants, and certain operator-pairs.
.pg
If the input stream has been parsed into tokens
up to a given character, the next token is taken
to include the longest string of characters
which could possibly constitute a token.
.ms
2.1  Comments
.et
The characters ^^\fG/\**\fR^^ introduce a comment, which terminates
with the characters^^ \fG\**/\fR.
.ms
2.2  Identifiers (Names)
.et
An identifier is a sequence of letters and digits;
the first character must be alphabetic.
The underscore ``\(ru'' counts as alphabetic.
Upper and lower case letters
are considered different.
No more than the first eight characters
are significant, and only the first seven for
external identifiers.
.ms
2.3  Keywords
.et
The following identifiers are reserved for use
as keywords, and may not be used otherwise:
.sp .7
.in .5i
.ta 2i
.nf
.ne 10
.ft G
int	break
char	continue
float	if
double	else
struct	for
auto	do
extern	while
register	switch
static	case
goto	default
return	entry
sizeof
.sp .7
.ft R
.fi
.in 0
The
.bd entry
keyword is not currently implemented by any compiler but
is reserved for future use.
.ms
2.3  Constants
.et
There are several kinds
of constants, as follows:
.ms
2.3.1  Integer constants
.et
An integer constant is a sequence of digits.
An integer is taken
to be octal if it begins with \fG0\fR, decimal otherwise.
The digits \fG8\fR and \fG9\fR have octal value 10 and 11 respectively.
.ms
2.3.2  Character constants
.et
A character constant is 1 or 2 characters enclosed in single quotes
``\fG^\(aa^\fR''.
Within a character constant a single quote must be preceded by
a back-slash ``\\''.
Certain non-graphic characters, and ``\\'' itself,
may be escaped according to the following table:
.sp .7
.ta .5i 1.25i
.nf
	\s8BS\s10	\\b
	\s8NL\s10	\\n
	\s8CR\s10	\\r
	\s8HT\s10	\\t
	\fIddd\fR	\\\fIddd\fR
	\\	\\\\
.fi
.sp .7
The escape ``\\\fIddd\fR''
consists of the backslash followed by 1, 2, or 3 octal digits
which are taken to specify the value of the
desired character.
A special case of this construction is ``\\0'' (not followed
by a digit) which indicates a null character.
.pg
Character constants behave exactly like integers
(not, in particular, like objects
of character type).
In conformity with the addressing structure of the \s8PDP\s10-11,
a character constant of length 1 has the code for the
given character in the low-order byte
and 0 in the high-order byte;
a character constant of length 2 has the code for the
first character in the low byte and that for the second
character in the high-order byte.
Character constants with more than one character are
inherently machine-dependent and should
be avoided.
.ms
2.3.3  Floating constants
.et
A floating constant consists of
an integer part, a decimal point, a fraction part,
an \fGe\fR, and an optionally signed integer exponent.
The integer and fraction parts both consist of a sequence
of digits.
Either the integer part or the fraction
part (not both) may be missing;
either the decimal point or
the \fGe\fR and the exponent (not both) may be missing.
Every floating constant is taken to be double-precision.
.ms
2.4  Strings
.et
A string is a sequence of characters surrounded by
double quotes ``^\fG"\fR^''.
A string has the type
array-of-characters (see below)
and refers to an area of storage initialized with
the given characters.
The compiler places
a null byte (^\\0^)
at the end of each string so that programs
which scan the string can
find its end.
In a string, the character ``^\fG"\fR^'' must be preceded by
a ``\\''^;
in addition, the same escapes as described for character
constants may be used.
.ul
3.  Syntax notation
.et
In the syntax notation used in this manual,
syntactic categories are indicated by
\fIitalic\fR type,
and literal words and characters
in \fGgothic.\fR
Alternatives are listed on separate lines.
An optional terminal or non-terminal symbol is
indicated by the subscript ``opt,'' so that
.dp
	{ expression\*(op }
.ed
would indicate an optional expression in braces.
.ul
4.  What's in a Name?
.et
C bases the interpretation of an
identifier upon two attributes of the identifier: its
.ft I
storage class
.ft R
and its
.ft I
type.
.ft R
The storage class determines the location and lifetime
of the storage associated with an identifier;
the type determines
the meaning of the values
found in the identifier's storage.
.pg
There are four declarable storage classes:
automatic,
static,
external,
and
register.
Automatic variables are local to each invocation of
a function, and are discarded on return;
static variables are local to a function, but retain
their values independently of invocations of the
function; external variables are independent of any function.
Register variables are stored in the fast registers
of the machine; like automatic
variables they are local to each function and disappear on return.
.pg
C supports four fundamental types of objects:
characters, integers, single-, and double-precision
floating-point numbers.
.sp .7
.in .5i
Characters (declared, and hereinafter called, \fGchar\fR) are chosen from
the \s8ASCII\s10 set;
they occupy the right-most seven bits
of an 8-bit byte.
It is also possible to interpret \fGchar\fRs
as signed, 2's complement 8-bit numbers.
.sp .4
Integers (\fGint\fR) are represented in 16-bit 2's complement notation.
.sp .4
Single precision floating point (\fGfloat\fR) quantities
have magnitude in the range approximately
10\u\s7\(+-38\s10\d
or 0; their precision is 24 bits or about
seven decimal digits.
.sp .4
Double-precision floating-point (\fGdouble\fR) quantities have the same range
as \fGfloat\fRs and a precision of 56 bits
or about 17 decimal digits.
.sp .7
.in 0
.pg
Besides the four fundamental types there is a
conceptually infinite class of derived types constructed
from the fundamental types in the following ways:
.sp .7
.in .5i
.ft I
arrays
.ft R
of objects of most types;
.sp .4
.ft I
functions
.ft R
which return objects of a given type;
.sp .4
.ft I
pointers
.ft R
to objects of a given type;
.sp .4
.ft I
structures
.ft R
containing objects of various types.
.sp .7
.in 0
In general these methods
of constructing objects can
be applied recursively.
.ul
5.  Objects and lvalues
.et
An object is a manipulatable region of storage;
an lvalue is an expression referring to an object.
An obvious example of an lvalue
expression is an identifier.
There are operators which yield lvalues:
for example,
if E is an expression of pointer type, then \**E is an lvalue
expression referring to the object to which E points.
The name ``lvalue'' comes from the assignment expression
``E1@=@E2'' in which the left operand E1 must be
an lvalue expression.
The discussion of each operator
below indicates whether it expects lvalue operands and whether it
yields an lvalue.
.ul
6.  Conversions
.et
A number of operators may, depending on their operands,
cause conversion of the value of an operand from one type to another.
This section explains the result to be expected from such
conversions.
.ms
6.1  Characters and integers
.et
A \fGchar\fR object may be used anywhere
an \fGint\fR may be.
In all cases the
\fGchar\fR is converted to an \fGint\fR
by propagating its sign through the
upper 8 bits of the resultant integer.
This is consistent with the two's complement representation
used for both characters and integers.
(However,
the sign-propagation feature
disappears in other implementations.)
.ms
6.2  Float and double
.et
All floating arithmetic in C is carried out in double-precision;
whenever a \fGfloat\fR
appears in an expression it is lengthened to \fGdouble\fR
by zero-padding its fraction.
When a \fGdouble\fR must be
converted to \fGfloat\fR, for example by an assignment,
the \fGdouble\fR is rounded before
truncation to \fGfloat\fR length.
.ms
6.3  Float and double; integer and character
.et
All \fGint\fRs and \fGchar\fRs may be converted without
loss of significance to \fGfloat\fR or \fGdouble\fR.
Conversion of \fGfloat\fR or \fGdouble\fR
to \fGint\fR or \fGchar\fR takes place with truncation towards 0.
Erroneous results can be expected if the magnitude
of the result exceeds 32,767 (for \fGint\fR)
or 127 (for \fGchar\fR).
.ms
6.4  Pointers and integers
.et
Integers and pointers may be added and compared; in such a case
the \fGint\fR is converted as
specified in the discussion of the addition operator.
.pg
Two pointers to objects of the same type may be subtracted;
in this case the result is converted to an integer
as specified in the discussion of the subtraction
operator.